Abstract: The author analyses the low levels of physical activity among teenage girls, and shows how an approach rooted in self-determination theory (SDT) can be used to educate girls regarding the convergence of the intrinsic values of physical exercise and their personal goals and values. This has been shown to lead to a higher self-regard, which is a motivator towards further independent engaging in physical exercise. A suggested programme is provided, based on short sessions conducted within the school day, which is felt to be the optimal way in which to achieve this goal.
The Benefits of Exercise
Physical exercise has an important role to play in the overall holistic development of adolescents. In addition to the obvious physiological benefits, studies have shown that teenagers who increased their levels of physical activity showed a concurrent improvement in their ability to manage stress, greater self-esteem, an improved body image, reduced levels of anxiety and depression and an improved self-concept both individually and within group settings. Physical activity (PA) is also one of the best predictors of long-term weight control and is one of the key components of obesity treatment.
Alarmingly, however, studies have shown a tendency for teenaged girls’ levels of activity to decline as they grow older; moreover, this decline tracks into adulthood, with a consequent increased exposure to longer-term health risks. In addition, overall obesity levels are on the rise across the country as a whole, and this is also reflected in increased incidences of obesity among children and teenagers . This is despite an increased focus on PA in schools by the Government, which suggests that the problem lies less with the facilities that are available to adolescents in promoting PA levels and more with the uptake of exercise among teenagers themselves. It seems clear that even as there is a greater emphasis on PA within school curricula, there remains a lack of motivation among teenagers to independently engage in PA. If we are to encourage greater participation in PA among adolescents, it is vital that we understand what is likely to motivate them most, over and above providing them with the necessary facilities, as well as what it is about the present state of affairs that is apparently failing to ignite their interest.
Self-determination theory
A motivational framework that has previously been applied to study this problem has been that of self-determination theory (SDT). SDT proposes that motivation exists in a continuum of self-determination ranging from amotivation (i.e. when a person lacks the motivation to act) through extrinsic motivation (when a person acts in response to external cues) to intrinsic motivation (when a person acts for the inherent pleasure derived from that particular activity), and that self-determined motivation (i.e. intrinsically motivated) leads to positive behavioural, cognitive and psychological outcomes, whereas behaviour low in self-motivation (i.e. controlled by external contingencies) leads to corresponding negative outcomes.
Studies have shown that teenage girls tend to view the imperative to exercise, and the benefits thereof, in terms of negatively expressed extrinsic goals, i.e. physical appearance and social pressures. Other work shows that extrinsic goals of weight management and appearance begin to emerge at or around puberty, largely as a result of the biological and associated social changes occurring at this time. Since goals such as these have been shown to be ineffective in promoting self-motivating behaviour, it would seem that for as long as they remain the primary motivational factor in terms of inducement to exercise, it is unlikely that PA will become a long-lasting part of the daily lives of teenage girls. Moreover, the social physique anxiety caused by the emphasis on physical appearance is frequently a demotivating factor, i.e. anxiety regarding the way in which they feel others view them is often strong enough to discourage girls from exercising altogether.
If, however, adolescents can be helped to perceive exercise in terms of working towards a set of intrinsic goals that conform to their own core values in life – self-development, the overcoming of personal challenges, moving past artificial growth-stunting barriers, and their own personal well-being – they will be far more likely to create motivational frameworks for themselves that are self-inspirational, and will lead to them independently coming to incorporate more exercise into their daily lives. This will help them to build an overall healthier lifestyle that they will take with them into adulthood, and will also foster an attitude of self-mastery that will serve them well in all areas of their lives.
It seems clear that in order for adolescents to become motivated to independently engage in PA, they must be self-motivated, a condition that will only be fulfilled when they are convinced of the intrinsic benefits to them in doing so. In order for this to occur, at least three conditions must be satisfied: they have to feel that they are making an autonomous choice to exercise, they have to feel that the exercise in which they engage is directly relevant to them, and they have to feel that what they are setting out to achieve is manageable, and not beyond them. In addition, there has to be persistent emphasis on the pleasure and personal benefits associated with PA, in order to temper the extrinsic cues to which they are constantly exposed. This leads to a reduction in social physique anxiety and an increase in self-determined motivation to positive exercise behaviour, which in turn leads to a higher quality of life.
In addition to shifting the motivational focus for exercise from extrinsic to intrinsic goals as described, it is obviously also essential that any factors that are cited as being an active impediment to exercise are similarly confronted and, where possible, removed as far as is possible. Lack of time and a deficiency in understanding the relevance of PA to their overall health have been cited by teenagers as the key barriers to incorporating more PA into their lives . Given that the lack of time is likely to be more a question of priorities than an actual time deficiency, it would appear that this factor is a follow-on from the cited lack of perceived relevance of exercise to their lives. This suggests that in order to encourage teenagers to exercise more, a twofold approach is necessary; they need to understand the importance and value of exercise, and the way in which it can contribute to their health in a more general sense, and they also, at least in the initial stages, need to have time for PA made available for them within their existing timetables in order for them to see how they can eventually incorporate exercise into their daily lives of their own volition. Moreover, as described earlier, the imperative for exercising needs to be presented to them in terms of its intrinsic value, rather than be viewed by them as an authoritarian imposition in which they have no say.
The imperative for school-based exercise intervention
I have in the past run after-school exercise classes for small groups of high-school girls that sought to inculcate these attitudes in group members, and have been fortunate to meet with some success in achieving these goals. However, I also felt that leading groups in these circumstances, i.e. as an extracurricular group activity, was less beneficial than it might otherwise have been, for two reasons. Firstly, given that the groups were being run in addition to the girls’ regular timetables, their focus by definition was on those girls who were already somewhat interested in exercise in the first place, and were therefore already motivated to some degree. In addition, since these sessions were not a regular part of the timetable, there was an unavoidable sense, even among interested participants, that PA was an optional extra that could be tacked on as an addition to their lives, but was not an intrinsic part of their normal timetables; it would therefore be the first thing in their timetable to suffer should any other demands on their time arise. The fact that they went out in the evenings to attend a class further reinforced the sense that exercise was not something that was incorporated into their lives by default. It was similarly a challenge to help them see that regular exercise is something that is intrinsically compatible with leading a Jewish lifestyle, since the sessions were not taking place in the same physical location as their religious education, i.e. their schools.
These issues could all be resolved at a stroke by the incorporation of targeted exercise sessions in schools that are run in tandem with the PE sessions that already exist. Since the sessions would be a part of the school timetable, all pupils would be invited to participate, providing an opportunity even to those who would otherwise be unable or unwilling to arrange out-of-school sessions. In addition, the implicit message of providing the sessions as part of the school day is that the ideals expressed within the sessions are compatible with, and should be incorporated into, daily living; in a Jewish school, the significance of this message is given further weight by the implication that there are religious benefits to a healthy lifestyle, as well as physical advantages. The aims of these sessions would not simply be the physiological benefits that are expected to accrue from standard school PE lessons. Rather, they will, in line with the ideals expressed above, aim to train pupils to become autonomous in making healthy lifestyle decisions. Instruction and practice are needed to achieve a reasonable level of competence in any new activity before it can become self-determined , but the ultimate goal is pupils’ self-determination.
An oft-perceived obstacle to introducing further PA programmes in school settings (and, indeed, to participation in exercise programmes out of school hours) is the idea that in order for exercise to be effective, it must be prolonged in terms of session times. However, research illustrates that the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise begin to be reaped from exercise sessions in as little as ten minutes .
Practical application
I therefore propose the introduction of short sessions of twenty minutes into the school timetable, in small groups. Smaller groups have been shown to have an increased motivational effect on their participants, more so than individually or in larger groups , as the members of the group encourage and support each other; pupils also benefit directly from the social engagement with their peers in a setting that is somewhat different to that in which they are used to interacting with them. Thus, the length of the sessions will be enough to show girls how exercise can benefit them, while simultaneously challenging their misconceptions of the time they would need to devote to PA in order for it to become effective. The reduced overall length of the sessions will also make them relatively easy to be incorporated into the school day.
These sessions will be split into two parts, each lasting ten minutes. In the first half, they will be guided through simple strength-based cardiovascular exercises, designed to work the entire body efficiently and effectively. The aim of this half of the session is twofold: firstly, the exercises themselves will be directly beneficial to the pupils, and secondly, the simplicity of the movements required will build a sense of competence within them that will give them the confidence to know that they are capable of engaging in PA such as this independently should they so wish. The second part of the session will be devoted to specific mind-body exercises which place an emphasis on the experiential component of exercise, rather than the outcome. For instance, pupils will be encouraged to notice, and be mindful of, how they feel within themselves as they move, embodying a sense of well-being and recognising how their bodies are working for them. The aim of this part of the session is to foster an increased awareness of the intrinsic benefits of exercising, which will in time lead to greater self-motivation to exercise.
Within each part of the session, girls will be encouraged to provide feedback regarding which exercises they feel are particularly beneficial (or otherwise) to them, and have the specifics of their individual programmes altered to them as necessary. This will promote a sense of autonomy and empowerment within them that is essential for them to be able to build the self-motivation that is a core component of this programme; in addition, it will foster a sense of the relevance of the programme to the pupils themselves. Moreover, responsiveness to their feedback will help participants to feel that they are being adequately supported in their participation in the programme. This feeling of being supported has been shown to be fundamental in helping girls to reap the greatest possible benefits from any exercise programme, in terms of their ability to practice and maintain healthier behaviours in exercise and nutrition, as well as in their psychological growth and wellbeing.
Building towards the future
I envisage two phases in this programme. The first stage involves introducing the pupils to the exercises and ensuring that they are proficient in engaging in the movements correctly. The second phase will involve encouraging independent PA and building on the confidence the girls have acquired through their participation this far. It will also explore various avenues that the girls deem relevant and worthwhile to themselves. Ideally the participants should reach a point where they engage in PA of their own volition with confidence in their own ability to exercise efficiently.
As discussed above, the mindfulness part of the session aims to nurture the identity of the pupils by emphasising the intrinsic experiential benefits of PA. Focussing on the holistic benefits accrued strengthens self acceptance. As the girls get in touch with the gains of their efforts they will begin to respect themselves for what they are accomplishing; this respect strengthens overall self-perception and raises self-esteem. I have observed a shift in self-perspective towards a healthier physical and general self-concept as the girls I have coached have learned to value themselves for what they have achieved. The unification of PA and internal values lessens the pressures the girls feel about their physical appearance in relation to others, and they learn to accept and respect themselves for who they are and for the efforts they make to live a healthy, active life in line with Jewish principles. This internal self-respect is expressed by the girls in their behaviour both towards themselves and in their dealings with others. Of particularly great impact is the more positive general attitude they engender towards their own physicality and the respect that they learn it deserves. I have found PA to be a potent force in increasing self-awareness and a more positive outlook on modesty, as the girls come to appreciate their own value and begin to treat themselves with more respect.
Conclusion
It must be stressed that the goal to which this article strives is not simply to get teenagers to exercise more. Rather, the goal is a deeper one; it is to create independent exercisers, who feel empowered and strengthened by their own understanding of the benefits of exercise, and are equipped to set their own goals and work towards them by their own track records of previous successful exercising. The aim is towards a qualitative rather than a quantitative change, in which teenagers become motivated to respect themselves and to actively take responsibility for their own welfare, both physically and spiritually. They will come to appreciate the unique role that they have in the world, in which the physical and spiritual elements within them combine to reach heights which neither could ever achieve on its own.
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